Introduction to the Medieval World: Class 24
Class 24: Islam Resurgent: The Ayyubids, The Mamelukes and
the Ottomans
Assigned Reading:
I. Introduction
Third part of Mediterranean world was Islam.
For much of the period after its establishment, Islam was
the most advanced and richest of the civilizations that
emerged from classical antiquity. While Byzantium and the
West were having their Dark ages, Islam was at its most glorious.
Diffused civilization
-Baghdad
-Cairo
-Cordoba
Even when the Arab power declined the torch was continued by
Turks and Persians.
Later Islamic history is often ignored in medieval history
courses. But as we shall see today it is important for a
number of reasons.
-The Crusades. Led to impact of west on Islam.
Also Spain and Sicily.
The West got much from Islamic culture.
-Continuing interaction of Islamic world and West cannot
be explained only by references to the time of Muhammad.
-The most successful of Islamic states, the Ottoman Empire,
succeed in driving Europeans out of Palestine, and destroying
Byzantium.
It posed the greatest threat the western Europe for centuries.
It also closed off the eastern Mediterranean to much western
shipping - led to a turn to Atlantic, and ultimately
transatlantic trade.
II. Tendency of Islamic States to Dissolve
Failure of institutions, especially of transfer of power.
Led to frequent civil wars.
Power rests in cities - Islam is an Urban civilization
-Even now, Syria is a state, but more it is Damascus controlling
Aleppo and Hama.
-This leads to easy fragmenting when central authority weakens,
which it always did when there was a clumsy passing of power.
III. Break-Up of the Abbasid Empire
-Ummayads in Spain 750
-Tahirids in Khorasan 822 , then Saffarids 873
-Fatamids in Egypt - 969-1171 (Arabs - last Arab power in area.
971 - took Mecca and Medina
1021- Al-Hakim destroyed Holy Sepulcher
-Buyids from 945-1055 in Baghdad- Shia
-But from then on Turks, and sometimes Kurds, rule Mideast until
20th century. No more Arab rule. Bedouin back in the desert.
IV. Arabs and Turks
Turks a nomadic central Asian people.
Convert to Islam c. 979, Employed as soldiers by Saminids in
Khorasan. [Small actions, Big consequences]
Seljuqs arrive 1025.
Soon become a power themselves.
Toghril Bey 1038-63 took Nishapur
1043 - take Isfahan, 1059 take Baghdad from Buyids
Adopt Sunni Islamic cause - founds madrasas
Alp Arslan 1063-72 (Mantzikert.
Malik Shah 1078-92 based at Ispahan
Period of Atabegs
V. The Crusades in Muslim Eyes
Major clash of Islam and Latin Christendom
So looking at Islamic World in 1095
-Spanish Muslim certainly feeling pressure from Christians,
but that was long way off from everywhere else.
-In the East, Cairo was opposed to the Seljuq
and the Seljuqs were based in Persia, not even Iraq.
-So little initial response to Crusades. Since Malik Shah died
just before crusades, the westerners faced little opposition,
as Islam was undergoing a period of succession strife.
-Also, Muslims did not understand the crusaders. At first thought
they were Byzantine employees.
-Arabs were shocked by barbarism of crusaders - e.g. at conquest
of Jerusalem.
This attitude of cultural superiority, fact based though it was
prevented the Muslims learning anything from the Franji. E.g.. some
Latins learned Arabic, but little record of Muslims learning
any Western language.
But, gradually, Arabs cam to see Crusaders as attackers of
Muslim land. Around 1140 attitudes hardened.
VI. Nur-a-din and Saladin
Muslims gradually attained some unity.
1100-25 - no unity at all. Even between Damascus and Hama
1125-50 - Zengi unites Aleppo and Mosul. A Turk - atabeg of
Mosul- Takes Edessa 1146
Did not used idea of Jihad
1150-75 - Nur-a-din, Zengi's son. Genuine Muslim. Did not drink.
A Sunni
Takes over Cairo - Khutba for Abbasid caliph - 1169\
Raise issue of Jihad against Crusaders
Emphasis on idea of Jerusalem as a Holy City
1175-1200
Nur-a-din had had Egypt ruled by Shir-Kuh, a Kurd. His son
was Salal-al-din - Saladin
Took over Syria and Egypt after Nur-a-Din's death.
New Muslim Unity.
Based in Cairo. Founder Ayyubid Dynasty.
Took Jerusalem 1187
So Crusaders, to an extent provoked Muslim unity. More certainly
they provoked a renewed emphasis on Islam in the state, and on
Jihad as a good basis for stability - built on by Ottomans.
Ayyubid Egypt - Main state in Area 1175-1250. Very Sunni.
Cairo as an important Sunni city - now most important Arab city.
VII. The Mongols
As well as attacks from Christian Europe, Islam in the 13th
century found itself under attack from Mongols.
Mongols - Build a huge empire based on the military power
of Mongol and Turkish nomads in central Asia.
Had a very high view of themselves expressed in a law
code called the Yasa. Aimed at World Domination.
Many of the women were Nestorians - myth of Prester John.
Temjin Khan - c. 1167
Genghis Khan - . b. 1161. 1206, d. 1227
1215 - took Peking
1220 - took Bukhara, 1222 Herat - 1,4000,000 killed
Extreme violence - aimed to create terror
Used relatives of a city being attacked at front of the army.
1230-50 - attacks on eastern Europe - the Golden Horde
Extreme destruction
-decline of population in China
-Khorasan so devastated we lose trace of its history for 200
years. Population of eastern Islam falls dramatically
[Biological unification of the World
-Plague in China 1330s
-In Byzantium 1347
-Iceland 1250]
Mongols turn on Islam
-Hulegu Khan attacks Iran and Iraq
-1258 -Last Abbasid Caliph Kicked to death in a carpet.
-Power in Islam moves decisively to Cairo
Mongols in Iran - cover it with Buddhist temples,
but later convert to Islam - as Il-Khanid dynasty.
[Christians had been spared by Mongols.
From Muslim viewpoint, the Christian population, with links
to crusaders and to Mongols, were less tolerable from now on]
VIII. Sultan Baibars and Ein Jalut
It seemed no one could stop the Mongol attacks.
Islam was going under.
The Crusaders were by 1250 irrelevant in the face of the huge
armies that were being put in the field.
Salvation for Islam came from Egypt.
The Mamelukes
One of the most curious regimes in the world was established
in Egypt after the Ayyubid dynasty collapsed in a succession
crisis. - The Mamelukes 1250.
Mamelukes were Turkish slaves. Often from south Russia.
After the Ayyubids one of these slaves became Sultan in Egypt.
His successor was another slave called Baibars.
Baibars was the opposite of the chivalric Saladin.
He advanced because he had no scruples.
He organized an army. It was able to defeat the Mongols
at Ein Jalut [Goliath's Well] in 1260.
One of the decisive battles of history.
This confirmed the Mamelukes as the main power in Islam outside
Iran.
State was dependent on Slaves.
Slaves only could become sultan.
A slaves children could not enter the higher ranks - new ones
had to be imported constantly.
The Arab population was ruled over then by a Turkish slave
aristocracy.
Caliphate moved to Cairo - It survived until 1516.
IX. Anatolia Becomes Turkey
The ultimate nemesis of the Mamelukes was developing in
Anatolia.
Seljuqs of Rum 1077-1307
Beylik period form 1243-1453
Idea of Ghazi - Booty important in Muhammad's time, but
now - due to Sufi influence - real religious aspect.
Turkish states attain legitimacy by fighting Christians.
X. The Ottomans
While Byzantium was having a revival, a new and ultimately
final challenge was developing.
The Seljuqs who had originally conquered Anatolia had collapsed
by the end of the 12th century - had been based at Konya.
Development of competing Turkish statelets - Ghazi ideal
Turkish state nearest CP - founded by Osman 1299
-leading Ghazi state. see map.
Began, c. 1300 to expand - taking over Byzantine land in the
West of Asia Minor plus other Turkish states.
1352 - Turks took Gallipoli - benefited from internal
civil wars in Byzantium.
Soon took over all Balkans - Edirne 1363
For last century Byzantium was a city state
XI. Conquest of Constantinople 1453
Mehmet II Fatih [the Conqueror]
-Took over Syria, Iraq, Egypt
Sulamain the Magnificent 1520 - Takes title of Caliph.
Attacks Vienna twice.
XII. Closing of the East to Europe
Ottoman state was universalistic - refused to recognized others.
It was built on opposition to Christianity, a theme which
had become important in Islam after the Crusades.
Europe began to look towards the Atlantic.
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© Paul Halsall, 1996.
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