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Ancient History Sourcebook
Josephus (37- after 93 CE):
The Roman Army in the First Century CE
Book 3 :Chapter 5: DESCRIPTION OF THE ROMAN ARMIES AND ROMAN
CAMPS
1. NOW here one cannot but admire at the precaution of the Romans,
in providing themselves of such household servants, as might not
only serve at other times for the common offices of life, but
might also be of advantage to them in their wars. And, indeed,
if any one does but attend to the other parts of their military
discipline, he will be forced to confess that their obtaining
so large a dominion hath been the acquisition of their valor,
and not the bare gift of fortune; for they do not begin to use
their weapons first in time of war, nor do they then put their
hands first into motion, while they avoided so to do in times
of peace; but, as if their weapons did always cling to them, they
have never any truce from warlike exercises; nor do they stay
till times of war admonish them to use them; for their military
exercises differ not at all from the real use of their arms, but
every soldier is every day exercised, and that with great diligence,
as if it were in time of war, which is the reason why they bear
the fatigue of battles so easily; for neither can any disorder
remove them from their usual regularity, nor can fear affright
them out of it, nor can labor tire them; which firmness of conduct
makes them always to overcome those that have not the same firmness;
nor would he be mistaken that should call those their exercises
unbloody battles, and their battles bloody exercises. Nor can
their enemies easily surprise them with the suddenness of their
incursions; for as soon as they have marched into an enemy's land,
they do not begin to fight till they have walled their camp about;
nor is the fence they raise rashly made, or uneven; nor do they
all abide ill it, nor do those that are in it take their places
at random; but if it happens that the ground is uneven, it is
first leveled: their camp is also four-square by measure, and
carpenters are ready, in great numbers, with their tools, to erect
their buildings for them.
2. As for what is within the camp, it is set apart for tents,
but the outward circumference hath the resemblance to a wall,
and is adorned with towers at equal distances, where between the
towers stand the engines for throwing arrows and darts, and for
slinging stones, and where they lay all other engines that can
annoy the enemy, all ready for their several operations. They
also erect four gates, one at every side of the circumference,
and those large enough for the entrance of the beasts, and wide
enough for making excursions, if occasion should require. They
divide the camp within into streets, very conveniently, and place
the tents of the commanders in the middle; but in the very midst
of all is the general's own tent, in the nature of a temple, insomuch,
that it appears to be a city built on the sudden, with its market-place,
and place for handicraft trades, and with seats for the officers
superior and inferior, where, if any differences arise, their
causes are heard and determined. The camp, and all that is in
it, is encompassed with a wall round about, and that sooner than
one would imagine, and this by the multitude and the skill of
the laborers; and, if occasion require, a trench is drawn round
the whole, whose depth is four cubits, and its breadth equal.
3. When they have thus secured themselves, they live together
by companies, with quietness and decency, as are all their other
affairs managed with good order and security. Each company hath
also their wood, and their corn, and their water brought them,
when they stand in need of them; for they neither sup nor dine
as they please themselves singly, but all together. Their times
also for sleeping, and watching, and rising are notified beforehand
by the sound of trumpets, nor is any thing done without such a
signal; and in the morning the soldiery go every one to their
centurions, and these centurions to their tribunes, to salute
them; with whom all the superior officers go to the general of
the whole army, who then gives them of course the watchword and
other orders, to be by them cared to all that are under their
command; which is also observed when they go to fight, and thereby
they turn themselves about on the sudden, when there is occasion
for making sallies, as they come back when they are recalled in
crowds also.
4. Now when they are to go out of their camp, the trumpet gives
a sound, at which time nobody lies still, but at the first intimation
they take down their tents, and all is made ready for their going
out; then do the trumpets sound again, to order them to get ready
for the march; then do they lay their baggage suddenly upon their
mules, and other beasts of burden, and stand, as at the place
of starting, ready to march; when also they set fire to their
camp, and this they do because it will be easy for them to erect
another camp, and that it may not ever be of use to their enemies.
Then do the trumpets give a sound the third time, that they are
to go out, in order to excite those that on any account are a
little tardy, that so no one may be out of his rank when the army
marches. Then does the crier stand at the general's right hand,
and asks them thrice, in their own tongue, whether they be now
ready to go out to war or not? To which they reply as often, with
a loud and cheerful voice, saying, "We are ready." And
this they do almost before the question is asked them: they do
this as filled with a kind of martial fury, and at the same time
that they so cry out, they lift up their right hands also.
5. When, after this, they are gone out of their camp, they all
march without noise, and in a decent manner, and every one keeps
his own rank, as if they were going to war. The footmen are armed
with breastplates and head-pieces, and have swords on each side;
but the sword which is upon their left side is much longer than
the other, for that on the right side is not longer than a span.
Those foot-men also that are chosen out from the rest to be about
the general himself have a lance and a buckler, but the rest of
the foot soldiers have a spear and a long buckler, besides a saw
and a basket, a pick-axe and an axe, a thong of leather and a
hook, with provisions for three days, so that a footman hath no
great need of a mule to carry his burdens. The horsemen have a
long sword on their right sides, axed a long pole in their hand;
a shield also lies by them obliquely on one side of their horses,
with three or more darts that are borne in their quiver, having
broad points, and not smaller than spears. They have also head-pieces
and breastplates, in like manner as have all the footmen. And
for those that are chosen to be about the general, their armor
no way differs from that of the horsemen belonging to other troops;
and he always leads the legions forth to whom the lot assigns
that employment.
6. This is the manner of the marching and resting of the Romans,
as also these are the several sorts of weapons they use. But when
they are to fight, they leave nothing without forecast, nor to
be done off-hand, but counsel is ever first taken before any work
is begun, and what hath been there resolved upon is put in execution
presently; for which reason they seldom commit any errors; and
if they have been mistaken at any time, they easily correct those
mistakes. They also esteem any errors they commit upon taking
counsel beforehand to be better than such rash success as is owing
to fortune only; because such a fortuitous advantage tempts them
to be inconsiderate, while consultation, though it may sometimes
fail of success, hath this good in it, that it makes men more
careful hereafter; but for the advantages that arise from chance,
they are not owing to him that gains them; and as to what melancholy
accidents happen unexpectedly, there is this comfort in them,
that they had however taken the best consultations they could
to prevent them.
7. Now they so manage their preparatory exercises of their weapons,
that not the bodies of the soldiers only, but their souls may
also become stronger: they are moreover hardened for war by fear;
for their laws inflict capital punishments, not only for soldiers
running away from the ranks, but for slothfulness and inactivity,
though it be but in a lesser degree; as are their generals more
severe than their laws, for they prevent any imputation of cruelty
toward those under condemnation, by the great rewards they bestow
on the valiant soldiers; and the readiness of obeying their commanders
is so great, that it is very ornamental in peace; but when they
come to a battle, the whole army is but one body, so well coupled
together are their ranks, so sudden are their turnings about,
so sharp their hearing as to what orders are given them, so quick
their sight of the ensigns, and so nimble are their hands when
they set to work; whereby it comes to pass that what they do is
done quickly, and what they suffer they bear with the greatest
patience. Nor can we find any examples where they have been conquered
in battle, when they came to a close fight, either by the multitude
of the enemies, or by their stratagems, or by the difficulties
in the places they were in; no, nor by fortune neither, for their
victories have been surer to them than fortune could have granted
them. In a case, therefore, where counsel still goes before action,
and where, after taking the best advice, that advice is followed
by so active an army, what wonder is it that Euphrates on the
east, the ocean on the west, the most fertile regions of Libya
on the south, and the Danube and the Rhine on the north, are the
limits of this empire? One might well say that the Roman possessions
are not inferior to the Romans themselves.
8. This account I have given the reader, not so much with the
intention of commending the Romans, as of comforting those that
have been conquered by them, and for the deterring others from
attempting innovations under their government. This discourse
of the Roman military conduct may also perhaps be of use to such
of the curious as are ignorant of it, and yet have a mind to know
it. I return now from this digression.
Book 3: Chapter 6: The Army on the March
2. But as Vespasian had a great mind to fall upon Galilee, he
marched out of Ptolemais, having put his army into that order
wherein the Romans used to march. He ordered those auxiliaries
which were lightly armed, and the archers, to march first, that
they might prevent any sudden insults from the enemy, and might
search out the woods that looked suspiciously, and were capable
of ambuscades. Next to these followed that part of the Romans
which was completely armed, both footmen ,and horsemen. Next to
these followed ten out of every hundred, carrying along with them
their arms, and what was necessary to measure out a camp withal;
and after them, such as were to make the road even and straight,
and if it were any where rough and hard to be passed over, to
plane it, and to cut down the woods that hindered their march,
that the army might not be in distress, or tired with their march.
Behind these he set such carriages of the army as belonged both
to himself and to the other commanders, with a considerable number
of their horsemen for their security. After these he marched himself,
having with him a select body of footmen, and horsemen, and pikemen.
After these came the peculiar cavalry of his own legion, for there
were a hundred and twenty horsemen that peculiarly belonged to
every legion. Next to these came the mules that carried the engines
for sieges, and the other warlike machines of that nature. After
these came the commanders of the cohorts and tribunes, having
about them soldiers chosen out of the rest. Then came the ensigns
encompassing the eagle, which is at the head of every Roman legion,
the king, and the strongest of all birds, which seems to them
a signal of dominion, and an omen that they shall conquer all
against whom they march; these sacred ensigns are followed by
the trumpeters. Then came the main army in their squadrons and
battalions, with six men in depth, which were followed at last
by a centurion, who, according to custom, observed the rest. As
for the servants of every legion, they all followed the footmen,
and led the baggage of the soldiers, which was borne by the mules
and other beasts of burden. But behind all the legions carne the
whole multitude of the mercenaries; and those that brought up
the rear came last of all for the security of the whole army,
being both footmen, and those in their armor also, with a great
number of horsemen.
Source:
Flavius Josephus: The Jewish War. III.5-6, trans. William
Whiston. Complete works of Josephus online at CCEL - http://ccel.wheaton.edu/j/josephus/JOSEPHUS.HTM
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