|
Medieval Sourcebook:
The Life of St. Liutberga, 9th Century
Vita S. Liutberga, ed. G. H. Pertz, MGH SS 4, 158-164.
Translation and notes by Jo Ann McNamara [jmcnamar@shiva.hunter.cuny.edu]
The convent of Winadohusen (Windenhausen) was built by a daughter
of Hesse who did homage to Charlemagne in 775 and died 804. The Life of Liutberga was written by a monk of Halberstadt
who knew her well close to her death (866-76), around 870. Feast,
Feb. 28. I have not been able to check any alternate text but
the gaps in the text (indicated ...) are probably omissions by
the editor of religious material not considered historically interesting
(at that time).
1. In his time, the emperor Charles the Great, first to bear the
august title of caesar in German lands, subjugated many nations
to the kingdom of the Franks. Among them he acquired many of the
most noble and prepotent men of the Saxon people of that age with
great estates. He subdued some by way of war and [converted] others
by the industry of his own ingenuity and great sagacity from pagan
rites to the religion of the Christians. One of the first and
most noble among these was named Hesse with whom he kept company
more than others. He sustained him with great honors because he
remained faithful to him in everything. Hesse lacked male children,
for his only son died in the flower of his youth leaving his rich
substance to his daughters. When he grew very old he distributed
the inheritance among his daughters and entered the Lord's service
at Fulda and died happily in the monastic habit.
2. One of his daughters, Gisla, born first among the others, took
a husband named Unwan by whom she had a son, Bernhart, and two
daughters, one called Bilihild and the other Hruothild, both of
whom founded monasteriola after the death of their husbands
and took the sanctimonial habit: one in Winithohus (Windenhausen)
in Saxony, in the country called Harthagewi (Harz) which
separated Saxony and Thuringia; the other in Franconia in Salugewe,
in the neighborhood of Bochonia in the place called Karolsbach
(east of Gemundae at Moenum). Each of the girls ruled their own
congregations of virgins respectively (Bilihild at Windenhausen
and Hruothild at Karolsbach). Gisla herself in widowhood led a
religious life, building many churches and giving alms and caring
for pilgrims. I don't know you should discern a virile soul in
the feminine sex with sharp ingenuity in carrying out various
affairs, or whether you might wonder at the effect of piety.
3. When this matron was travelling on business, because she had
to care for possessions in many different places, she arrived
at a certain place where the hour forced her to request hospitality.
The monastery of virgins there had a guesthouse nearby and the
proper buildings they had prepared seemed comfortable enough.
One of the maidens serving her caught her eye for that young girl
(virgunculam) seemed to excel the others of her age in
form and intelligence. With a servant's diligence, she directed
them all at a nod with a clever mind. [The matron] silently observed
her consideration and way of acting and began to make inquiries
about who she was and what family she sprang from, her birth and
profession of condition. She answered all this prudently and in
order, saying she came of decent parents from Salzburg, explaining
their ancestry and condition and expounding her whole way of life.
And she would willingly have taken vow except for her tender age.
Suddenly [Gisla's] mind was made up and she began to urge her
powerfully to go with her and commit herself to her in trust,
swearing under divine witness that she would remain with her for
all time as beloved as her own daughter born.
4. Believing this promise, [Liutberga] took the road with [Gisla]
and, as I believe by consent of divine providence, the will of
both of them was fulfilled. Afterward, she asserted that this
happened by divine will because she had vowed to be a pilgrim
and God, to whom she had given herself in her mind, had made it
possible. So that maiden Liutberga went with the matron Gisla
touring all her possessions and the maid continued this office
with charity as day followed day and became ever more dear not
only to those with whom she dealt but among all who knew her.
So she lived in the house of her great lady, noble by nature,
and all her virtues grew into flower as she matured. She was wise
in counsel, truthful in word, honest in her duties, generous in
alms, constant in works, excellent in piety, foremost in every
benignity, caring for the sick and ending discord. Opening her
heart to the misery of the needy, she loved everyone, and everyone
loved her. This happy virago overflowing with her many gifts,
daily augmented her perfection step by step, more and more pleasing
to God as to men.
5. As we said, the virago Liutberga was fit for everything, strong
in her ways, particularly tireless in divine praises, psalms and
hymns and spiritual canticles according to the apostle in her
heart offering to her Lord the devout sacrifices of her mind.
To explicate briefly the study of her behavior, whatever she thought
might be pleasing to God she embraced with all the love in her
heart, and she avoided the enticements of an evil world as a steep
cliff. She worked steadily at holy scripture and, meditating daily,
became ever more proficient so that her intellect gained a profundity
that would have become even more learned had she not been impeded
by the imbecility of her sex.
6. She was so greatly skilled in those diverse arts that pertain
to woman's work that in places where she was known the people
called her Daedala. She remained faithful to her mistress, and
yet so merciful that she was called mother of the poor. So it
happened that the common people proclaimed her happy fame and
she came to the notice of the nobility, the leading men and matrons,
and her friends increased and came to love her most heartily.
It was wonderful how she was first dear and then became more beloved
so that she had friends in every part of the country where she
travelled.
7. By time she was mature the venerable matron Gisla had become
infirm and the day of her death drew near. She called her son
Bernard and told him: "My son, don't neglect your mother's
words but give heed to my last precepts. I leave you with full
substance and diverse possessions, buildings and ornaments which
should suffice to sustain you in this life if God wills. May you
always remember to strive for the restoration of the church and
recuperation of the derelict and take care of your sisters sollicitously,
showing them the diligence of benign supervision and brotherly
love. For custody easily suffers a little defect in women, if
every manly vigilance has not been given in good time to their
tuition. And one other thing I commend to you one way and the
other, from the faith of your mother, and require by most urgent
petition and maternal affection; it is that you will give fitting
honor to my beloved daughter Liutberga whom I have adopted by
promise of faith as my own daughter and that you will procure
her fitting honor and hold her in love joined among the number
of your sisters and heed her counsel and commit to her care any
precious things you possess; because I have always held her in
the highest trust." And grasping his hand she commended her
in trust to her son and kissing him and saluting all in peace,
ended her life. And she was buried with honors in the time of
the emperor Louis, father of Lothar and Pepin and Louis and Charles,
and she left her son Bernhard as heir.
8. For a long time, Liutberg remained in the house of her lord
according to the disposition of his mother. She had the governance
of the things [Gisla] had possessed so that the rule of the house
constituted a burden for her. His lordship held her in maternal
love and sincere honor and she all the domestics of both sexes
loved her as a mother and so did the whole familia.. Bernhard
took as wife a daughter of the great count Lothar, named Reginhild,
who bore him two sons, one named for his father and the other
named Otwin. And the she burned with so much love for the venerable
Liutberga that she was not readily deceived by her appearance
at that time. As from maternal example she copied her good habits
and honest gravity of manners, and provided [everyone] daily with
many things from her generosity. And after she had been confined
for a long time in sickness, still in youthful immaturity, her
life ended and she left her husband and her sons in a storm of
sorrow.
9. And Bernhard not able to sustain his youthful life without
the consolation of a wife, took another of the noblest birth,
a wife of the greatest beauty and propriety, and with this wealth
lessened the sorrow of the first wound. She was called Helmburg,
from whom four sons and two daughters were born, of whom the eldest
was named Unwan, then Adalbert, the third Asic, the fourth Ediram,
names drawn from her relatives, and two daughters named Gisla
and Bilihild. And the mother and children grew strong under the
care of venerable Liutberga and showed her the highest devotion
of love so much that she was called genetrix rather than nutrix.
10. Bernhard, having many possessions from both his parents, and
many properties in various places, could not easily tolerate the
absence of the venerable woman because she was the faithful guardian
and dispensatrix of his things. But wherever she was staying,
she never omitted to visit the house of God by day and night and
attend divine services assiduously and keep vigils in the night
till dawn, She was so strenuous in never permitting any detriment
pertaining to the divine work that everyone began thought it a
great miracle. She had great learning and exacted from her body
the labor of a man, not an imbecile. Divine help gave constancy
to her soul, rising toward the heavens without doubt. She never
bent beneath the weight of her burdens but daily contended among
the men of the palaestrum against the allurements of the world
and the temptations of the flesh, incentives to bodily lust and
mental petulance, smooth blandishments against her chastity, and
maintained sobriety to extirpate the roots of evil delight.
11. Having made fasts and vigils, worn down with labor, as we
noted, she began to consume her body with inedia. The color of
her face changed and her physical vigor languished. Pallor began
to replace the living color of her countenance and her skin adhered
to her bones stretching her emaciated aspect, for the more she
progressed, from the parts from the night by which she was most
sharply tested, the more she kept watch. Therefore it soon became
her custom, if she were staying somewhere where there was no church
known to her, she would [seek one out] to keep vigil all night
with only a little boy or girl. She would generally hear mass
or take communion before going on her way. She thus governed her
lord's house not only with words but with the example of virtue.
12. Seeing her thus grow pale and emaciated, the count paid heed
to her saying to those who stood by: "What infirmity grips
our beloved mother Liutberga?" He was answered that the cause
of this was not illness but rather inedia and wakefulness and
constant affliction of her body. She was continually going by
night to distant churches that were difficult of access with no
company but a little boy or little girl. Every night, she was
wandering in her bare feet. Stupefied, the count called her to
him and addressed him in his accustomed respectful and soft manner,
saying: "Dearest, mother, who has always led the way in gravity
and honesty of life, not only in words but in making yourself
a mirror, do you now take so precipitous a way as though striving
to reach a premature death before the time predestined by God?
There is an armed and frightful man hereabouts, a pagan or one
false to the name of Christian, who day and night unnerves the
hearts even of the strong because of his thieving. For there is
so much danger from his fury that, unless you leap into the teeth
of ravening beasts or the jaws of the wolves, you will find nothing
worse. Our worst enemies, not sorrowing, could say nothing except
that this [behavior] springs from evil and superstition. So all
the fame of your beautiful life will be reduced to nothing."
13. To which venerable Liutberga replied with submissive voice,
"My lord, I do not seek to pay heed to the garrulity of wicked
men who always rashly make mock of pious and sober living and
threaten good deeds with ravening jaws and tear men to pieces
with poisoned tongues. For that malignity sprang from the first
born of our first parents, Cain, who in turn propagated the wicked,
sewing evil seed in depraved hearts far and wide throughout the
world. But having no malice toward them, we put our care in the
Lord's hand, like the prophet and he feeds us. Nor will he throw
the just to the flood but will keep them from the works of the
wicked. And so it is written: "If God is for us, who can
be against us?" And so speaks the psalmist: "The lord
is my shepherd, I shall not fear what man may do to me."
And elsewhere: "The lord is my shepherd and I shall despise
my enemies." And: "Good is it to confide in the Lord,
rather than in man. For the help of man is vain." And innumerable
other pages of scripture show the right way to the heavenly fatherland
can be lost by inoffensive feet, repulsed afar by terror of the
enemy so that even the faithful psalmist presumes to say trustingly,
"I trust in the Lord, who has said to my soul, Cross the
mountain," and the same prophet exults as a victor, glorifying
the Lord: "You have given over my enemies to me and have
thrown down those who hate me." So should we not raise our
eyes from this brief and uncertain life? Where is the power of
the great? Where the wealth of the rich? Where are the innumerable
armies of the strong? Where the flowing luxury made by kings?
And the insatiable desires of their servants? Where are those
who constantly thirsted, piling up gold and silver wherever they
could? They are the ones who become more thirsty the more they
drink. They build up treasure and do not know for whom; taken
by rapine and theft, its lovers follow money into perdition. We
do not fear them, saying with the Lord: "Do not fear them
who kill the body for they cannot kill the soul. Rather fear him
who can lose body and soul in Gehenna." And elsewhere the
Savior says: "Who loves his soul for my sake will keep it
in eternal life." Why should I fear death for my Lord's sake?
Who keeps watch except our Lord order it saying: "Watch and
pray lest you fall into temptation." And he who orders us
to watch, orders us to pray: "Pray that your flight be not
in winter nor on the sabbath." And about fasting it is written:
"In your day of fasting you will find your will." And
what more could be our will than that God will give us grace and
we mortals may deserve immortality in his kingdom?
14. This and other words of the same sort guided the count's disturbed
spirit to tranquility and the swelling fury which had begun to
grow in him was sedated by this medicine. Turning to her he said:
"Your statements, if I may speak thus, are more from divinity
than from yourself. You have so much obliged my spirit by the
justice of your desires that I can deny you nothing. I pray that
you may fulfill your vow for whose name, in the face of so many
difficulties, you have not flinched from going forward. And whatever
it may suit your will to require of me, you shall ask." When
she heard this offer, her soul was so overcome that she would
have thrown herself at his feet if he had not prevented her. She
said: "Then, my lord, with a heart overflowing for your piety,
I willingly ask this favor, and as a reward conceded from divinity,
I will never cease to thank you for your strength if the petition
of your servant is conceded." And he said to her: "Speak,
I pray; hide nothing that is in your soul. Trust what I have said
already: I will concede any reasonable petition you make, life
and health and God permitting." Then she drew a long sigh
from within and soon bursting into tears said: "I am a great
sinner, lord, bound in many chains so that even at the boundaries
of age I live a delicate and erroneous life in this world of voluptuous
desires; here and there in the course of my wanderings, I made
promises of the most binding nature to the Lord which then have
been ignored and forgotten. Now I ask of your piety that I may
cease wandering and spend the rest of my life in penance for my
sins and for the benefit of them who need my mercy. For I believe
that you and your mother of happy memory will thus gain more.
The Lord has said, "What you do for one of the least of these
you do for me." And James said, "Who changes her life
from the error of sins, her soul will be saved from death and
bury a multitude of sins."
15. Then responding with a pleasant face, he said: "And where
can we find a place of such quietude where you may hide safely
without the turbulent racket of this world or the floods of the
age?" Then she said: "I have prepared a place for myself
as the days of my littleness approach. There if your piety would
order a little cell built, it would suffice for my habitation
and produce abundance for my days far from the wealth, delight
and joys of the world." Admiring the constancy of the woman
and the virile fidelity of her soul, after a long silence, he
said: "Do I understand that you would attempt to sustain
life in this isolated place in solitude and seclusion from others
in the common life? Surely these are counsels for priests and
for our bishop rather than for layfolk." And she answered:
"My lord, I have never thought to make such a beginning without
being examined by our holy rectors to ensure that not my will
but God's be done and that would be shown through their counsel."
The priests and bishops gathered to consider the reasoning of
this case deliberated together over her arguments for a long time.
The colloquy ended, they put faith in her promises and she was
restored to her joyous spirit leaving hope of divine piety in
all her undertakings.
16. Some time after, the bishop of that province, Theogrim of
blessed memory, visited in the same count's house (B of Halberstadt,
827-40) because they had a firm friendship between them. And
there he spent the night and the next day the venerable Liutberga
took the opportunity to approach him desiring to consult his opinion
privately. God disposed that he should appear at this time and
place. Prostrating herself humbly at his feet, she with a humble
voice spoke to ask his clemency. At first he was thunderstruck,
for he had formerly taken good notice of her as devoted to honest
customs and he knew that she held the place of a genetrix in the
house of her lord. Thus he had in mind to be merciful and gently
spoke to her: "There, my beloved sister, expose freely whatever
words of complaint may be in your mind. In me, you have truly
acquired one who volunteers as your consoler." And she followed
the advice of scripture: "Just in the first words is his
own accuser," calling herself a sinner and accusing herself
of many crimes and imploring his help with the sins she had committed
and whatever came to her mind she exposed without hesitation.
17. After hearing her arguments and listening carefully, knowing
that she was always desirous to procure justice and should rather
be called a helper of virtue rather than a repeller, when there
was total silence, he quickly leaned his face to her and said:
"I believe proposal in your mind, beloved daughter, springs
from the fountain of piety but first we must seek by careful deliberation
how to find the path of your salvation. First, we must pray for
divine help so that our counsel prosper in cooperation with the
author of all good and having thus begun the voyage well under
his governance we may come safely to port." And saying this,
he had Bernhard called to himself and sat down with him and then
the bishop said to him: ...
The text breaks off here, presumably to omit a lengthy conversation.
Several chapters are missing which apparently elaborate her plans
and lead to the bishop's permission.
21. Having said all this the bishop admonished her while she gave
him thanks prostrate at his feet: "Thanks be to God, I am
what I am ..." ... Therefore the bishop along with the count
so much admired the constancy of her spirit that they agreed with
common consent to give her what she wanted and that very day they
went to the place she desired.
22. Then at the proper time, that same bishop came with no small
number of priests and a numerous collection of clergy of the second
grade and lower orders, and blessed the cell and the little hut
prepared for the work with his benediction. He sprinkled it salubriously
with aspersions of water. Having enclosed her in this small domicile,
no better than a shack, he forbade her to go out unless the most
urgent need pressed her. He gave her his blessing and left the
place, constructed in a paternal manner as a walled cloister.
She wept and prayed that she would deserve to bring her struggle
to a good end with the Lord's assistance. And then the venerable
handmaid Liutberga, having gained her desire according to her
vow, persisting day and night in prayer, abstaining from food
and drink, put the pressure of fasting and vigils on her imbecile
and attenuated body which was fed on nothing but bread with herbs
and salt. Even on Sundays and feast days, she ate the smallest
portions of legumes and fish, making her most delicious banquets
of fruit and berries from the fields in their seasons. [she kept
a cauldron] of burning coals in this same cell because of diverse
shades of color. As we have said, she was an artifex of many womanly
crafts. She never ceased from any other useful work and day and
night she kept occupied with handiwork and praying and meditation.
And in any spare time that she had she instructed those who came
to her, giving only the bare minimum time to food and sleep that
the fragility of human nature demanded.
23. Thus she expended her whole life in such doings and no discomfort
ever overcame her body and in fact she endured more later than
in the beginning. She was affable to those who came to her, as
we sum it up, so that each [visitor] departing from her rejoice
on the return trip because they all thought that the time they
had spent with her was worth a great price. ...
24. No one could enumerate how many traps of the enemies she survived
and what various tricks of Zabuli struck her, always machinations
of diverse terrors whether through the sharp heat of her fantasies
or images from showings from the supernal kingdom. But always
these seductions mixed the true with the false so as to use recognition
of the truth to lead the incautious mind into falsehood. ... But
the venerable handmaid of Christ persevered in prayer day and
night and kept nothing with her but the clothes that covered her
vile body and a single vessel for her food and a little cot with
a mat on which she was accustomed to sleep. She heard a voice,
I don't know from what spirit, saying to her: "One who wishes
to lead a life like this should not linger on the couch."
And hearing this, she immediately began to turn with anxious mind
how [she/it] could expose her [show herself] through the only
little window in the wall for she distrusted her small strength
to break [it] for it was a compact specimen of the turner's work...
25. Once the malign spirit came to her disguised as a certain
turner, a man whose shape the devil assumed who was a serf of
count Poppo whom the servant of God had known in the past and
who had offered her a little gift of a vessel from which she might
eat, ...
Two paragraphs missing, presumably on further diabolic temptations.
From the structure of para. 28, I suspect there was more dialogue
with a shadow voice.
28. Another time, [the spirit] confronted her with insults about
her way of life, and vituperating her sanctity with customary
reproach, recalling to memory how in her girlhood she had tricked
one of her companions. She had broken her needle in the course
of their common work and when her partner stepped out she filched
her whole needle and left her broken one in its place. And thus
[he] congratulated her on this deception as though it had been
a good deed. "Hey, and where was your precious sanctity then,
which you did not blush to undertake this theft?" So she
still remembered this deed committed in the days of her infancy
when she was first learning the textile arts and she still held
her sin unconfessed through forgetfulness ...
29. And she was asked by a certain brother about notice or discretion
of spirits, how she could distinguish when Satan transformed himself
into an angel of light or some other venerable person. Trembling
and bringing forth a sigh from the depths of her heart, she was
silent for a while and then spoke in a formidable voice: "You
ask about a flaming horror and my greatest anguish of sorrow,
venerable brother, for I have fallen many times into that sea
of doubt you ask about, almost despairing, imploring divine help
by the constancy of my prayers whose protection has been the object
of my insuperable labor. At last, the Almighty extended clemency
and this he said to me on what you have asked: `You may be sure
if you pay careful attention. For you may take care to observe
whatever persona appears to you when it goes away from you. I
he has shown you a fantastic figure, whatever the color of his
garments, you will see the blackest spot on his posterior.' This
sign, venerable brother, was confided to me by the generosity
of divine clemency so that, as though liberated within from the
deepest pit and filled with ineffable joy for this pious consolation,
I have resisted the cunning wiles of the enemy with a more confident
mind." ...
30. A certain man of free parentage named Hruodart, a vassal of
Bilihild, followed a woman from her chamber for carnal copulation.
One day as dusk approached, it happened that that woman was hurrying
to him near her closed cell. Seeing her, Liutberga called out
to her: "Dearest daughter! Do not neglect to finish the work
that you see already started with me because true labor will be
a profit to you. You will have whatever you expend of your labor
in divine service for everything is good that is usefully worked
at." She had brought her tapers or lamps for it was the hour
of candles and lights. And she was desiring to go out to him who
was concealed without ... when suddenly a malign spirit intervened
in such a terrible form, gorging flaming sulphur from nose and
mouth, eyes sparkling with fire, black of body with immeasurable
claws. Hovering above him, his knees pressed against his chest,
his gaping jaws swallowing his face and his great claws reaching
for the guts like a flying eagle preying, it plunged terribly
into [his] vitals and his soul flew out leaving in misery ...
Four chapters are missing, probably of similar miraculous events.
35. And now for her more secret understanding which has come to
us refering to the assertions of faithful men or truthful women
whose reliability has been confirmed by witnesses and rational
probability. For she was rewarded by God with the spirit of prophecy,
able to clarify many events to take place in future, from which
a few, avoiding the name of sanctity, presaged faithfully to investigation.
A certain count Frederick in the same villa had a house with his
brother Adalger, also a count, whose wife Pia customarily went
to mass or to vespertine prayers at that church. Liutberga addressed
her, saying: "Lady, and sweetest daughter, you should not
omit to pour out prayers for your mother and genetrix." ...
As she foretold, she remained thirty years in that cell and it
happened that whatever she foretold inevitably came to pass. It
is splendidly clear that when she foretold, the event was always
certain to occur... Particularly, when she conversed with men
of sanctity, or [had] the most familiar disputation with those
whom she knew to be most disciplined and erudite in divine law,
taking gleams of their perfection from them she always made them
joyful at parting. Abbots and bishops took notice of her, commending
themselves to her prayers in person or through messengers, and
kept her in their prayers rejoicing in alternate breaths to the
lord. Her Bishop was Hemmo, worthy of memory, a man of the highest
sanctity and erudition, under whose care and protection she remained
by reason of his behavior, in whose diocese she resided. He had
many instructive and edifying conversations with her and helped
her with her corporal needs, visiting her often clemently with
paternal affection. The man who stood above all in saintly memory
and foremost athlete of Christ in the perfection of all virtues,
Archbishop Ansgar of Bremen held her in such love of holy daughterhood
that the devout father hastened for the grace of visiting her
on the distant road with the greatest benevolence. The venerable
prelate gave her not only the colloquy of his presence but corporal
subsidies and as helper of every need he most gladly comforted
her by his great munificence. He sent her maidens of most elegant
form for the fulfillment of those divine works in which she continually
engaged. With greatest care, she educated them in psalmody and
artisanal works and freely permitted them, once taught, to go
to any of her neighbors or anyone they wished.
36. And she noted many men and women in religious habit of serious
manners, commending herself to their prayers and asking among
other things that they beseech that she might come to a good end
to her present life. If anyone deigned to supplicate or offer
sacrifice for her or fast for her she would benevolently dedicate
a sabbath fast to them because she heard that the Roman pope had
decreed Saturday, the day when Christ lay in the tomb, as a fast
day. And on the same day the disciples and holy women fasted likewise
for sorrow and so on Saturdays no serfs or maids free of service
to their lords should do work in their own houses either. Daily
she cared for paupers, consoled widows and orphans, cared for
the sick, not only her neighbors but any that she heard about
wherever they were. And she gave whatever comfort she could to
those who were confined for their crimes. She heard daily mass,
bringing offerings to God, with money excepted, with which prayers
she yearned daily more ardently for her own end. Nonetheless,
the correct hours chanting with her sisters, she increased psalling
prayers in common ...
37. ... She died in the time of Louis the glorious younger, king
of the Franks, and was buried honorably in the church to the praise
of his name who has deigned to care for all who put their hopes
in him, Jesus Christ, who with the Father and Holy spirit lives
and reigns God in the cycle of the ages. Amen.
Source: Vita S. Liutberga, ed. G. H. Pertz, MGH SS 4, 158-164.
Translation and notes, © 1997, Jo Ann McNamara [jmcnamar@shiva.hunter.cuny.edu]
Permission is granted for electronic copying and distribution
in print form for educational purposes and personal use.
If you do reduplicate the document, indicate the source. No permission
is granted for commercial use.
This text is part of the Internet Medieval Source Book.
The Sourcebook is a collection of public domain and copy-permitted
texts related to medieval and Byzantine history.
Paul Halsall August
halsall@murray.fordham.edu
The Internet History Sourcebooks Project is located at the History Department of Fordham University, New York. The Internet
Medieval Sourcebook, and other medieval components of the project, are located at
the Fordham University Center
for Medieval Studies.The IHSP recognizes the contribution of Fordham University, the
Fordham University History Department, and the Fordham Center for Medieval Studies in
providing web space and server support for the project. The IHSP is a project independent of Fordham University. Although the IHSP seeks to follow all applicable copyright law, Fordham University is not
the institutional owner, and is not liable as the result of any legal action.
© Site Concept and Design: Paul Halsall created 26 Jan 1996: latest revision 15 November 2024 [CV]
|
