Byzantine Paleography
This page and the linked pages are not directed at those who are already
able to read Byzantine MSS with ease, i.e. Paleographers, a skilled and erudite
group of scholars. Rather the goal here is to present basic discussions, images, and a few
useful tools to those who are interested in how we come to gain knowledge about the past,
and to those just starting out with work on manuscripts.
Note: Many of the files accessible through this page are necessarily image files
-- for both images of manuscripts and for Greek transcriptions. The pages will, therefore,
not make much sense without an image based web-browser. Since there is, as yet, no
universal system of displaying Greek text, I have used image files for Greek
transcriptions of manuscripts. These should be readable by all, but at the cost of the
files being rather large. Those with only a slow modem will find this page slow going, for
which I apologize.
Texts
Letter Forms
Abbreviations, etc.
Links
Worked Examples
This part of the page will grow as more worked examples are added.
- Worked Example 1 -
Chludov Psalter, Moscow State Historical Museum, MS. Add. gr. 120, fol. 23v
Images - The History of Greek Handwriting
The images here illustrate the development of Greek writing. I am working on ways
to improved the quality of some of the images. Highly detailed color facsimiles are too
large for rapid loading with most modems and so, for the moment, black and white images
are available. The main sources are Edward Maunde Thompson, An Introduction to Greek
and Latin Paleography, (Oxford: Clarendon, 1912), and Franz Steffens, Proben aus
grieschischen Handschriften und Urkunden, (Trier: Schaar und Dathe, 1912) (both now
out-of-copyright in the US). With Thompson's images the transcriptions are in the same
file as the facsimile; with Steffens images the transcriptions are in separate files. The
Steffens images should print out on 600 dpi laser printers at sufficient quality for
student practice. I would appreciate feedback on whether this is the case.
- A Literary Papyrus -
Timothy of Milteus, The Persians, 4th cent. BCE. Uncial, (Steffens 1), with transcription.
- A Papyrus - a
Petition, 168 BCE. Uncial with a tendency towards cursive. (Steffens 2; British Mus. Pap.
XXIV), with transcription part
1 and transcription part 2.
- A Literary Papyrus -
Commentary on the Theaetetus of Plato, 2nd Century CE. (Berlin Museums, Pap 9782)
Source: Edward Maunde Thompson, An Introduction to Greek and Latin Paleography,
(Oxford: Clarendon, 1912), facsimile 13
Thompson writes (p. 133) - The writing, it will be seen, is of a good fluent style, by
a well-skilled hand, easy in its action. There is a slight tendency to ornamental
finishing as might be expected of so ready a penman as the scribe must have been.
Comparing it to earlier examples...there is here evident a greater breadth in the
formation and a wider spacing of letters...It is this breadth and increased freedom, as
compared to the more precise regularity of the older examples, that give the impression of
progress; for in the actual structure of the individual letters there is very little
variation. Indeed the difficulty, in such an instance as the present one, of judging the
age of book-hand papyri is very great; for the number of examples is comparatively
limited, and they have to be distributed over so large a space of time that it is only
when certain of them can be grouped within not to wide a period and can therefore
individually give support to each other in the sequence assigned to them that we can be
said to be standing on fairly firm ground. Then the eye acquires a familiarity with the
character of the writing and its sublet changes, and the paleographer develops a kind of
instinct for the exercise of his judgment and for the conclusions at which he arrives. but
when the examples lie far apart in date, then we cannot speak without diffidence and
reserve, recognizing that further discoveries may largely modify present opinions.
- A Literary Papyrus -
Homer, Odyssey III:457-491, 1st cent. BCE. Uncial, (Steffens 3: Brit. Mus. Pap.
CCLXXI), with transcription
part 1 and transcription
part 2.
- A Cursive Papyrus -
on the left a Debenture, 145 CE. Cursive, (Steffens 4a: Brit. Mus. Pap. CCVIII) -
on the right a Letter 346 CE. Cursive, (Steffens 4b: Brit. Mus. Pap. CCCCIX), with transcription 4a and transcription 4b.
- An Uncial Manuscript - The Bible, Codex Sinaiticus, late 4th Century CE, (Leipzig, Royal Library, Cod.
Frid.Aug)
[The whole page is not shown, but the top of column 1 begins in Esther 1:15]
Source: Edward Maunde Thompson, An Introduction to Greek and Latin Paleography,
(Oxford: Clarendon, 1912), facsimile 45
Thompson writes (p. 200) - The text is written in four columns to a page, the open book
thus presenting eight columns in sequence, and, as has been suggested, recalling the line
of columns in a papyrus roll. Like the Vatican MS (Codex Vaticanus) it is devoid, of
enlarged letters; but the initial letter of a line beginning a sentence is usually placed
slightly in the margin, as will be seen in the facsimile. The chief characteristic of the
letters is squareness, the width being generally equal to the height. The shapes are
simple and the horizontal strokes are fine.
- A Literary Parchment - Dio Cassius, Roman History LXXIX:14.2-16.2, 5th cent. CE. Uncial, (Steffens 5:
Vat. grec. 1288, fol. 4r), with transcription
part 1 and transcription
part 2.
- A Literary Parchment - Pedanius Dioscorides, About Plants and Seasons, written for Anikia Juliana, 512
CE. Uncial, (Steffens 6: Vienna, Hofbibliothek, Suppl. Greac. Pag. 162), with transcription.
- A Cursive Papyrus - Debenture,
545 CE. Cursive, (Steffens 7: Brit. Mus. Pap. 1319), with transcription.
- A Greek Cursive Papyrus - Public Accounts, 700-705 CE, (British Museum, Pap 1012)
Source: Edward Maunde Thompson, An Introduction to Greek and Latin Paleography,
(Oxford: Clarendon, 1912), facsimile 41
Thompson writes (p. 180) - This document, there can be no doubt, written in the best
form of the official hand of the time is of the highest paleographical value. It is also
interesting as one of a group of papyri illustrating the continuance of the official use
of Greek in Egypt for the better part of a century after the date of the Arab conquest of
the country. The minuscule hand is here complete; and this example, being written with
such calligraphic effort, demonstrates most clearly the connection between the cursive
writing of the papyri and the literary minuscule of the vellum codices.
- The transition from uncial to minuscule- An example of Uncial and minuscule on the same
page - Canon 22 of the Council of Nicea II (787) (top - in minuscule), and the
opening Horos (bottom - in uncial), (British Museum, MS Barocci 26, fol. 140b)
Source: Judith Herrin, The Formation of Christendom, (Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 1987), fig. 12
- Minuscule - example of Codices
Vetusissimi - Thucycdides, Peleoponnesian War, 10th Century, (Florence,
Laurentian Library, Plut. 1xix)
Source: Edward Maunde Thompson, An Introduction to Greek and Latin Paleography,
(Oxford: Clarendon, 1912), facsimile 57
Thompson writes (p. 228 [paraphrased]) - This codex commends itself on account of its
beautiful execution. The accents and breathings have been touched over by a later hand.
Proper names of persons are distinguished by a waved horizontal stroke.
- A Minuscule Parchment -
Plato, Phaedrus, 895 CE. Uncial, (Steffens 8: Bodleian, Clarke MS 39, fol.224),
with transcription part 1 and transcription part 2.
This MS is interesting in itself. It was written for Arethas of Patras (later of
Caesarea), one of the most important figures in the history of Byzantine books. It was
bought by Dr. E.D. Clarke in 1802 from the monastery of St. John on Patmos.
- A Late Uncial Parchment - Gospel Book, Luke 17:34-18:8, 949 CE. Uncial, (Steffens 9: Vat. grec. 354, fol.
161), with transcription of
the first few lines.
Uncial script continued to be used for a number of centuries after minuscule was
introduced as a formal book hand. One important use was in ecclesiastical MSS, from which
it acquired a distinct religious significance. The type of script in this example served
as the basis for later Slavonic scripts.
- A Minuscule Parchment - Psalter, Ps. 98:9-99:5, 967 CE., (Steffens 10: Bib. Ambrosiana. B. 106, parte sup.,
fol. 166), with transcription of the central Psalm portion.
- A Minuscule Parchment -
two leaves of a Gospel Book, Matt:5-4-17 (the Beatitudes); John 1:1-14, 1022 CE.,
(Steffens 11: Bib. Ambrosiana. B. 56, parte sup., fol. 28v and fol. 150).
There is no transcription of theses texts, which are, however, among the best known of all
Biblical passages.
- Minuscule - example of Codices
Vetusti - Canons, 1042 CE, (Bodleian Library, Barocci MS 196)
Source: Edward Maunde Thompson, An Introduction to Greek and Latin Paleography,
(Oxford: Clarendon, 1912), facsimile 65
Thompson writes (p. 235) - We have an instance of
the ordinary type of book hand
of the middle of the eleventh century. It comes from a volume of ecclesiastical canons in
the Bodleian library. In this hand the conventional Greek minuscule book-hand may be said
to have broken with the upright close set style of the tenth century. There is a tendency
to slope the writing, perhaps indicative of more haste; and the letters are more spaced
than in earlier centuries. The growing habit too, of introducing enlarged and letters and
uncial forms among the minuscules is manifest and (a small but not insignificant detail),
the circumflex is enlarged. At the same time the lettering itself is still well-formed and
exact.
- A Minuscule Parchment - Private Document, 1053 CE. Minuscule with a tendency towards cursive. (Steffens 12:
Badia della SS. Trinita di Cava de'Tirreni Parchment grec. 6), with transcription.
- A Minuscule Parchment -
Josephus Flavius, Menaeum, On the Maccabees, 1073 CE. (Steffens 13: Bib.
Ambrosiana. C. 186, parte inf., fol. 95v), with transcription.
- A Minuscule Parchment -
Basil the Great, Homilies on the Hexaemeron, VI-VII, 1073 CE. (Steffens 14: Naples.
Bib. Nazionale. II. Aa. 18, fol., 63v), with transcription.
- A Minuscule on Paper - Theophylakt, Commentary on the Four Gospels, On Mark, 1255 CE. (Steffens 15:
Paris. Bib. Nationale, MS grec. 194a, fol. 277), with transcription part 1 and transcription part 2.
See Migne, PG, 123 col. 492.
- A Minuscule Parchment - Private Document, 1257 CE. Minuscule, but strongly cursive, (Steffens 16: Badia
della SS. Trinita di Cava de'Tirreni Parchment grec. 93), with transcription part 1 and transcription part 2.
- A Minuscule on Paper - Aristides, In Puteum Aesculapii, In Serapim, 1317 CE. (Steffens 17: Bib.
Ambrosiana. II. 52, parte sup., fol. 158), with transcription part 1 and transcription part 2.
- Minuscule - example of Codices
Recentiores - St. Athanasius, 1321, (British Museum, Harley MS5579)
Source: Edward Maunde Thompson, An Introduction to Greek and Lation Paleography,
(Oxford: Clarendon, 1912), facsimile 76
Thompson writes (p. 255) - This specimen is...
decidedly cursive and is much
abbreviated. It is take from a MS of the treatises of St. Athanasius in the British
Museum. The writing has no claim to beauty, but it is quite legible; and, as a working
copy, the MS. holds a respectable place. The fact that it is written on paper accounts for
a slight thickening or blottiness of the letters; and the exaggeration in the accents and
in the signs of abbreviation lend it an air of untidiness to the text. But the actual
structure of the lettering is fairly neat.
- A Minuscule on Paper - Thucydides, History , IV.V, 1344 CE. (Steffens 18: Bib. Ambrosiana. II. A.4,
parte inf., fol. 56), with transcription.
- A Minuscule on Paper - Plutarch, Parralel Lives , Sulla/Agesilaus, 1362 CE. (Steffens 19: Bib.
Ambrosiana. D. 538, parte inf., fol. 253), (no transcription)
- A Minuscule on Paper - Xenophon, Anabasis , Bks. II-III, 1374 CE. (Steffens 20: Bib. Ambrosiana. II. 78,
parte inf., fol. 39), with transcription
part 1 and transcription
part 2.
- A Minuscule on Paper - Plutarch, Moralia, De esu carnium. De fato., 1402 CE. (Steffens 21: Bib. Vat.
Urbinas grec. 1000, fol. 178), with transcription.
- A Minuscule on Paper - Plutarch, Parallel Lives, Theseus, 1416 CE. (Steffens 22: Bib. Vat. Urbinas grec.
96, fol. 1), with transcription
part 1 and transcription
part 2.
- A Minuscule on Paper - Herodatus, Histories , Bk. IV, 1440 CE. (Steffens 23: Naples, Bib. Nazionale,
III. B.1, fol 204), with transcription.
- A Minuscule on Paper - Aristotle, Politics , Bk. IV, 1493 CE. (Steffens 24: Naples, Bib. Nazionale, III.
E2. Fol 157r and 158?), with transcription.
- A Minuscule on Paper - Aristotle, Politics , Bk. IV, 1493 CE. (Steffens 24: Naples, Bib. Nazionale, III.
E2. Fol 157r and 158?), with transcription.
- Two minuscule MSS of the same text: John Kaminiates, De Expugnatione Thessalonicae. Cod. Vatic. Gr. 172, fol. 1 of circa 1439 and Cod. Athous
Laurae L 55, fol. 147 of 1511. See the discussion of the Manuscript Editing Process which refers to these facsimiles.
- An Illustrated Minuscule - Gregory Nazianzus, Orations, with a miniature of Gregory, by the hand of Xiphilinus,
monk. (Laurentianus Viii,24 - fol. 3v and 4r: 198mm x 145mm)
Source: Lefort, Louis Theophile and J. Cochez, Palaeographische album van gedagteekende
Grieksche minuskel handschriften uit de IXe en Xe eeuw = Album palaeographicum; codicum
Graecorum minusculis litteris saec. IX et X certo tempore scriptorum, (Leuven:
Philologische studien, 1932). p. 93.
- An Illustrated Minuscule - Chludov Psalter, Psalm 25 (26), with a miniature of Patriarch Nikephoros, (Moscow State
Historical Museums, MS. Add, gr. 120, fol. 23v)
Source: Judith Herrin, The Formation of Christendom, (Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 1987), fig. 16
The text is used as a worked example above.
Sources Note: The texts and images on this web site were written by
me, or taken, with acknowledgment, from material now in the public domain in the United
States (Copyright Law in other countries varies). In a few cases, also acknowledged, small
parts of more recent works were used were used under fair use provisions. In addition,
although not used explicitly, many facts and references were checked with the splendid Oxford
Dictionary of Byzantium.
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© Site Concept and Design: Paul Halsall created 26 Jan 1996: latest revision 4 October 2024 [CV]
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